The 20 Best Writing Contests for High School Students

The 20 Best Writing Contests for High School Students SAT/ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips In the event that you’re an essayist fiction, true to life, or fanfiction-you can give those aptitudes something to do for you. There are huge amounts of composing challenges for secondary school understudies, which can grant everything from decorations to money prizes to grants on the off chance that you win. Not exclusively will some additional cash, regardless of whether money or grants, help you when it comes time to pay for school, yet the notoriety of a regarded reward is likewise an incredible thing to remember for your school application. Peruse on to get familiar with what composing challenges for secondary school understudies there are, the manner by which to apply, and what you could win! Composing Contests With Multiple Categories Some secondary school challenges acknowledge sections in an assortment of arrangements, including the standard fiction and verifiable, yet additionally things like screenwriting or visual workmanship. Look at these challenges with different classifications: Educational Art and Writing Awards Grant Amount: $1,000 to $10,000 grants Cutoff time: Varies Charge: $5 for single passage, $20 for portfolio The Scholastic Art and Writing Awards commend workmanship by understudies in grades seven through twelve on a territorial and national scale. These honors have an enormous number of classifications and styles, including money prizes or grants for some recognized honor champs. Classifications incorporate sci-fi and dream composing, humor, basic papers, and sensational contents, among others. Cutoff times change by locale, so use Scholastic’s Affiliate Partner search to discover when tasks are expected for your region. Educational accomplices with different associations to give prizes to champs, so what you can win relies upon what you enter and what rivalry level you reach. Gold decoration portfolio champs can procure a $10,000 grant, and silver award victors with unique excellence can acquire a $1,000 grant, just as numerous different alternatives in various classes. The Scholastic Art and Writing Awards are available to private, open, or self-taught understudies going to class in the US, Canada, or American schools in different nations. Understudies must be in grades seven through twelve to take an interest. Qualification changes between areas, so counsel Scholastic’s Affiliate Partner search apparatus to make sense of what concerns you. The Scholastic Art and Writing Awards have a $5 section charge for singular entries and $20 for portfolio entries, which might be postponed for understudies out of luck. These charges may shift contingent upon area, so make certain to check your neighborhood rules. Sea Awareness Contest Grant Amount: Scholarships up to $1,500 Cutoff time: June 17, 2019 Charge: None The Ocean Awareness Contest solicits understudies to consider the future from a beach front or marine species that is under danger from environmental change. Entries are acknowledged in an assortment of works of art, yet all must consider the way that environmental change impacts sea life. Entries for all classes, including craftsmanship, verse, composition, film, and music are expected by June 17, 2019. Champs may get prizes of up to a $1,500 grant, contingent upon which division they fall into and what prize they win. Extra grants are accessible to understudies who exhibit inventiveness in their voice for sea activism, just as understudies situated in Boston, Massachusetts. The challenge is available to all universal and US understudies between the ages of 11 and 18. Stream of Words Grant: Publication in theRiver of Words compilation Cutoff time: December 1, 2018 for US understudies, February 1, 2019 for universal understudies and those in Arizona or Georgia Charge: None The River of Words challenge requests that understudies consider watersheds-a region that channels into a similar waterway and how they interface with their nearby network. Understudies can investigate this idea in workmanship or composing, with victors being distributed in the annualRiver of Words collection. Sections in all classifications must be put together by December 1, 2018 for understudies in the US, or February 1, 2019 for universal understudies and understudies in Arizona or Georgia. The River of Words challenge is principally for acknowledgment and distribution, as the site doesn't list any value cash. The challenge incorporates explicit honors for specific structures, for example, verse, some of which may have extra prizes. The challenge is open toInternational and US understudies from kindergarten to review 12. Secondary school understudies more seasoned than 19 are additionally qualified. Competent Prizes Grant Amount: $200 money Cutoff time: Spring Expense: $12 Supported by the Adroit Journal, the Adroit Prizes reward secondary school understudies and college understudies for delivering commendable fiction and verse. Understudies may submit up to six sonnets or three works of exposition (totalling 3,500 words) for thought. Entries normally open in spring. Victors get $200 and distribution in the Adroit Journal. Finalists and other participants get a duplicate of their judge’s most recent distributed work. The challenge is available to auxiliary and college understudies, including global understudies and the individuals who have graduated early. The Adroit Prizes has a non-refundable expense of $12, which can be postponed. YoungArts Competition Grant Amount: Up to $10,000 money grants Cutoff time: Spring Expense: $35 Open to understudies in a wide range of controls, including visual expressions, composing, and music, the YoungArts rivalry solicits understudies to present a portfolio from work. Extra prerequisites may apply contingent upon what masterful order you’re in. Champs can get up to $10,000 in real money just as expert improvement help, mentorship, and other instructive prizes. Candidates must be 15 to 18-year-old US residents or lasting occupants (counting green card holders) or in grades 10 through 12 at the hour of accommodation. There is a $35 accommodation expense, which can be postponed. A pine cone is a fundamental piece of any essayist's toolbox. Fiction Writing Contests for High School Students Numerous challenges with various classes acknowledge fiction entries, so additionally look at the above challenges in case you're searching for spots to submit unique composition. EngineerGirl Writing Contest Grant Amount: $100 - $500 money prize Cutoff time: February 1, 2019 Charge: None The current year's EngineerGirl Writing Contest solicits understudies (however the name of the association is â€Å"EngineerGirl,† understudies of any sex may take an interest) to compose an anecdotal story where a female fundamental character utilizes designing to take care of an issue. Word tallies shift contingent upon grade level. At each evaluation level, in front of the pack victors will get $500, runner up champs will get $250, and third-place champs will get $100. Winning passages and noteworthy notices will likewise be distributed on the EngineerGirl site. Understudies of any sexual orientation from third to twelfth grade may submit to this challenge. Self-taught and universal understudies are likewise qualified. I suggest turning on the light or lighting a flame for additional perceivability. Genuine Contests for High School Students Like fiction, genuine is regularly additionally acknowledged in challenges with various classes. Be that as it may, there are many challenges tolerating just true to life articles too. The American Foreign Services Association Essay Contest Grant Amount: $1,250 to $2,500 Cutoff time: March 15, 2019 Charge: None The American Foreign Services Association supports a secondary school paper challenge requesting that understudies distinguish the United States’ qualities and shortcomings in building up harmony in outside nations. In a paper somewhere in the range of 1,000 and 1,250 words, understudies must answer three inquiries regarding US international strategy and national security. One victor will get $2,500 just as a Washington D.C. trip and a grant to go to Semester at Sea. One second place gets $1,250 and a grant to go to the International Diplomacy Program of the National Student Leadership Conference. Passages must be from US understudies in level nine through 12, remembering understudies for the District of Columbia, US domains, or US residents going to class abroad, including self-taught understudies. John F. Kennedy Profile in Courage Contest Grant Amount: $100 - $10,000 Cutoff time: January 18, 2019 Expense: None The John F. Kennedy Profile in Courage challenge requests that understudies compose an exposition somewhere in the range of 700 and 1,000 words on a demonstration of political fearlessness by a US chose official serving during or after 1917, motivated by John F. Kennedy’s Profiles in Courage. Each exposition should cover the demonstration itself just as any impediments or dangers the subject looked in accomplishing their demonstration of mental fortitude. Articles must not cover past figures shrouded in the challenge, and ought to likewise not spread John F. Kennedy, Robert F. Kennedy, or Edward M. Kennedy. One in front of the rest of the competition champ will get $10,000, one second-place victor will get $3,000, five finalists will get $1,000 each, and eight semi-finalists will win $100 each. The challenge is available to understudies in grades nine through 12 who are occupants of the United States going to open, private, parochial, or self-teaches. Understudies younger than 20 in correspondence secondary school projects or GED programs, just as understudies in US regions, Washington D.C., and understudies concentrating abroad, are additionally qualified. SPJ/JEA High School Essay Contest Grant Amount: $300 - $1,000 grants Cutoff time: February 22, 2019 Expense: $5 The SPJ/JEA secondary school exposition challenge, sorted out by the Society of Professional Journalists and theJournalism Education Association, solicits understudies to investigate the job from the Fourth Estate-the press-in American culture. Articles ought to be from 300 to 500 words. A $1,000 grant is given to an in front of the rest of the competition champ, $500 to runner up, and $300 to third-put. The challenge is available to open, private, and self-taught understudies of the United States between grades nine and ten. The National World War II Museum Essay Contest Grant Amount: $50

Experimental Research Elements free essay sample

In the United States the advancement of another medication, for human utilization is a long and troublesome procedure requiring numerous degrees of testing. Commanded by the food and medication organization (FDA) the thorough procedure of new medication advancement can comprises of in any event four stages. On the off chance that the FDA affirms the new medication to be protected and viable for people, by and large, all the way the whole procedure of new medication advancement, take a normal of 12 years of trial look into costing the pharmaceutical organization a huge number of dollars. As of late a pharmaceutical organization needs to test another tranquilizer for people, utilizing a situation like this can give greater explicitness on precisely how the possibly new tranquilizer goes from the research facility to a customer. In new medication advancement, analysts methodicallly utilize the exploratory research setting accentuation on key elementshypothesis, randomization, treatment gathering, control gathering, and estimation (University of Phoenix, Week Three Supplement, 2012). We will compose a custom article test on Trial Research Elements or then again any comparable theme explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page Each key component of trial inquire about compares to a particular stage in new medication improvement. Potentially the most significant component is theory trying that happens in the pre-clinical research periods of new medication advancement. Speculation testing in the pre-clinical stage is important to help the case made by the pharmaceutical to persuade the FDA that the new tranquilizer demonstrates is viable and safe to test on people (Simonoff, 2010). For this situation, the theory is that the new tranquilizer is progressively compelling in decreasing the indications of sleep deprivation. Utilizing evidentiary help in pre-clinical preliminaries of the new tranquilizer proved the case of viability and that it is sheltered to test on people in clinical preliminaries. The following stage in new medication improvement happen in three periods of clinical preliminaries in which researcher’s further use experimentation to test the speculation of the tranquilizer on human subjects. Basic to clinical analysts/researchers is to diminish bewildering factors (wellbeing, age, culture, sexual orientation, and race) as this can influence the aftereffects of the examination (Myers, 2012). Hence, clinical researcher or analysts haphazardly appoint the human subjects to a treatment gathering, or control gathering. The treatment bunch uncovered the autonomous variable to the subjects though the subjects in the benchmark group don't have introduction to the free factor (Comer, 2012). By looking at the treatment and control gatherings, the experimenter can all the more likely decide the impact of the free variable†or measure the variable that shows if the theory is valid or not (Comer, 2012). Along these lines, as far as estimation the autonomous variable to quantify is the new tranquilizer where experimenters exposed to members in the treatment bunch with indications of sleep deprivation. Demonstrating successful, as far as the time it takes for one to fall and stay unconscious the experimenters should seriously mull over the new tranquilizer or free factor as treatment, or a method of treatment for members with manifestations of a sleeping disorder. Moreover, the clinical researchers, analysts, and additionally experimenters consider the reliant variable the clinical or mental improvement brought about by the autonomous variable. Clinical preliminary stages in new medication testing keeps going as long as three years in which the new tranquilizer proceeds with further testing on a great many existing patients (who volunteer) in facilities or potentially emergency clinics (Today’s Science, 1995). Assuming maybe, the new tranquilizer meets FDA endorsement, this may happen in any event ten to twelve years after the fact after which examinations will keep on deciding whether there are long haul reactions of the new guide. It is clear that in the United States, new medication improvement is a long, exorbitant procedure including yet not restricted to speculation testing, pre-clinical, clinical preliminaries, a huge number of valiant subjects in treatment and control gatherings (and that's just the beginning). In the plan to give safe, affecting medication treatment to help in the treatment of ailment and ailment in human and creatures devoted researchers, different pros, and analysts press on utilizing the key components of exploratory research to do as such.

A Study of Tradition 8 of the 12 Traditions of AA

A Study of Tradition 8 of the 12 Traditions of AA October 15, 2018 Martin Barraud/OJO Images/Getty Images More in Addiction Coping and Recovery Methods and Support Overcoming Addiction Personal Stories Alcohol Use Addictive Behaviors Drug Use Nicotine Use Tradition 8 of a 12-step program  says, Twelfth step works should always be nonprofessional, but our service centers may employ special workers. This tradition allows contributions to be used for support services while the groups provide only non-professional, mutual support. Tradition 8 ensures that any time a newcomer reaches out for help, he will receive it, free of charge. Members freely share their own  experience, strength, and hope  with the newcomer and by doing so, help themselves by reinforcing their own recovery in the process. As Step 12 says, Having had a spiritual awakening as the result of these steps, we tried to carry this message to others, and to practice these principles in all our affairs. There is a saying in 12-step groups, In order to keep it, you must give it away, with the key word being give.   Non-Professional Mutual Support Many times, newcomers to the program will go to their first meeting expecting to find trained professionals who are there to help them. What they find instead is a fellowship of equals who are gathered together for mutual support. There are no doctors, therapists, or counselors, only other members who have or have had the same problem in their lives. Thats not to say, some of those members are not doctors and professionals, but they leave those outside affiliations at the door. Its how the 12-step programs work, by giving it away in order to keep it. Tradition 7 says that 12-step groups are self-supporting through their own contributions. These contributions are used to employ special workers and maintain the district, area, and worldwide structure. This tradition is reflected in the history of AA when  John D. Rockefeller, Jr. rejected a giving a large donation  as it would spoil the thing and they must become self-supporting to be successful. Many people do not trust authority. This is true of those who want to become sober. Going to a professional counselor is different from going to a group of others who are in recovery. Twelve-step groups are different from professional recovery services, offering the support that the members feel in sharing and listening to each others stories. There is no authority the member can rebel against. Hiring Special Workers Twelve-step organizations at the national, state, and regional levels may have service centers which serve the fellowships as a whole by printing and distributing literature and meeting schedules, maintaining answering services, and other tasks. These central offices and service centers many times involve more work than volunteer service workers can provide, so some hire full- and part-time employees to do the necessary labor to keep them running smoothly. Tradition 8, therefore, allows for the special workers to be hired and paid a salary to do the work that volunteers cannot cover. Special workers may be employed to keep the AA message alive around the world through printing, communications, and other technology. This is not paying for 12th-step work but paying for the services needed to support it with literature and outreach. Members understand the difference between paying for support services but not paying for professional counselors.

Barbed Wire Essay - 894 Words

Barbed wire helped revolutionize the West by dividing up the land evenly and cheaply. However, some people out West found it to be an impediment to moving across wide plains. Cowboys and Native Americans even came up with a new name for it, Devil’s Rope. Joseph Farwell Glidden was a very influential man in the creation of barbed wire and he forever changed the West and the World. Barbed wire helped reform the West, but it had to start somewhere. Joseph Glidden saw a wire attachment at the DeKalb County Fair presented by Henry M. Rose. He used a wood rail and hammered nails into it to hook onto a fence. Joseph Glidden was there with Jacob Haish, and Isaac Ellwood. They each saw this and began to talk to Henry about it. Joseph†¦show more content†¦Glidden was unsure about this, and he consulted his lawyer about it. The lawyer said to go for it, but to keep the royalties so he could continue to make . Joseph signed the contract and they went into business toget her. Isaac Ellwood partnered up with Glidden so that he could monopolize the barbed wire industry and focus on the business aspect. His wife also said that Glidden had a better design than he did, which is part of the reason he partnered with Glidden. Haish was a fierce contender, and he went to court to see who got the patent, but Glidden eventually won. Joseph Glidden had patents already, so when he saw the barbed wire, he thought that he could make that, so he did. He was a very creative man and he was intelligent too. Before he invented barbed wire he invented something called the land roller. It had the wheels placed in special alignment so that the wheels did not go over the same land twice. Barbed wire was needed out West, and Glidden’s barbed wire was easy to transport so it went West. The wire migrated West because Texas Longhorn Cattle would trample and graze on farmer’s crops and the farmers hated it. Cattle would also get run over by trains because t hey would cross in front of a train on the newly built Transcontinental Railroad. Barbed was put up to line the railways for miles at a time. Some people like cattle drivers and Native Americans hated barbed wire so much that they came up with the new nameShow MoreRelatedWarhorse: World War I Essay1572 Words   |  7 Pagesassess their contribution to the creation of specific mood(s) and atmosphere(s) at moments: set design, lighting, sound. The live performance I have chosen to write about is ‘Warhorse’ which I saw on the 3rd February at the New London Theatre. In this essay, I am going to explain and analyse how the staging and the lighting together created the different atmospheres and moods such as fear and tension. Throughout the play, numerous themes are illustrated such as the barbarity of war and the cruelty ofRead MoreChicken Run media essay2029 Words   |  9 Pages Chicken Run media essay Wallace and Gromit eat your heart out there’s a new chick in town! Chicken Run, directed by Peter Lord and Nick Park is a sensational clay animation. A new piece of cinematic excellence to be added the title ‘a classic’, with its side-splitting humour, astounding action and stunning stop motion Chicken Run is a film well worth watching. I can guarantee you won’t be disappointed! Enough about how good the film is; what is it about? ChickenRead MoreBehind the Barbed Wire: Auschwitz Essay1554 Words   |  7 PagesAuschwitz. At Auschwitz, from the beginning of Auschwitz to the end, everything in the camp was made for death. Behind the barbed wire, the location of Auschwitz, the nutrition, the daily life, the gas chambers, everything could kill. The estimations of death from Auschwitz are extremely high, showing how truly terrible Auschwitz really was. The horrors of what happened behind the barbed wire must never be forgotten. Although there were many concentration camps during WWII, the most infamous camp was by farRead MoreBiography Of Nik Christensen And Dominic Mcgill1448 Words   |  6 Pages IEB conclusive research essay Nik Christensen and Dominic McGill have influenced my art , being tremendously closely related to my art works. Christensen sees his works as a trailer of a total story , which I decided to use this idea on my art works , drawing a scene from my life explaining my emotions. McGill genre she sticks to is paradigm of political discourse. She does not refer to the future but more about the past , political and events. Her artwork a man is wolf to man , withRead MoreHaigs Reputation as the Butcher of the Somme Essay654 Words   |  3 Pageswreckage in the thickened barbed wire of the failed attack of the Somme, after a relentless artillery barrage on a fifteen mile stretch of front to the West. Continuing on from this, he has so forth earned the sceptically based nickname the butcher of the Somme as he sent so many brave, lions to their death never to see Blighty again. I personally belive that he was at fault; however he doesnt deserve such a name as being a butcher. In this essay I will look at the evidenceRead MoreField Marshal Haig: â€Å"Hero or Butcher of the Somme†1014 Words   |  5 Pagesaccomplished in the most gruesome ways. This essay will examine reasons which voice out opinions that support both arguments as well as my own. One explanation of Haig being described as a butcher is the ineffectiveness as well as the inadequacy of his plans and preparations. Wires were not being cut and telephone messages were intercepted. This is explicitly depicted in source 7, as it describes how â€Å"hundreds of dead were strung out (on barbed wire) like wreckage washed up to a high water markRead MoreAnalysis Of The Poem Why Leaves Turn Color On The Fall By Diane Ackerman1005 Words   |  5 PagesDiane Ackerman wrote an essay called â€Å"Why Leaves Turn Color in the Fall†, in which in great detail she explains why leaves change color in the fall. She uses subjective description with science terms to provide the reader with the feeling that science, or nature is amazing as it does all of this wonderful things to leaves. â€Å"Early frost sits heavily on the grass, and turns barbed wire into a string of stars† (86) Ackerman combines two ordinary things like frost and barbed wire, and uses an analogy toRead MoreWhy Were Causalities so High on the Wester Front929 Words   |  4 Pagessuch as the length of the war, the weapons involved, strategy and tactics, and the conditions. The total number of casualties in World War I, both military and civilian, was about 37 million: 16 million deaths and 21 million wounded. Throughout this essay, I will explain how each of these things affected the number of people who died on the Western Front. The first reason was weaponry. It was a major contribution to the number of deaths and probably what caused the most deaths because they were allRead MoreStructure Briar Rose - Jane Yolen992 Words   |  4 Pagesof thorns as sharp as barbs is followed by the chapter in which Becca discovers that her Grandmother was in Fort Oswego (Oswego was a refugee camp with a barbed wire fence surrounding the perimeter). Not only this, but she finds out that her Gemma was known as Kzienska, meaning princess in polish. Kzienska, the princess behind the barbed wire, the rose past the thorns, the beauty in the horror are all references to Sleeping Beauty and at the same time refer to the brutal period in Gemmas life thatRead MorePoem Analysis : Incantation 882 Words   |  4 Pagesthe opening line, the author sets the stage for the piece, stating: â€Å"Human reason is beautiful and invincible.† Read the poem carefully, and then write a well-developed essay in which you analyze how the au thor conveys the power and potential of language. Language has an indisputable power in our society. From persuasive essays to pep talks, we as humans have long recognized and harnessed, to the best of our ability, this truly awesome power. Poetry, for example, is often utilized to express a

The Commonly Confused Words Rapped, Rapt, and Wrapped

The words rapped,  rapt,  and wrapped are homophones: they sound alike but have different meanings. Definitions Rapped is the past tense of the verb rap. Rap means to knock, hit suddenly, or criticize sharply. The verb rap also means to talk freely and openly or to perform the highly rhythmic type of popular music known as rap  (noun)  or hip hop. The adjective rapt means receiving (someones) full attention, being wholly absorbed (in something), or being carried away (with emotion). Wrapped is the past tense of the verb wrap, which means to cover, enclose, or bundle. The phrasal verb wrapped up means to be involved or obsessed with someone or something. Examples After a few shots, Muholi removed the fruit basket from her head and sat down at the kitchen table to load the images into Photoshop. She rapped her knuckles on the table while she waited, fretting out loud that the concept wouldnt work.(Jenna Wortham, Zanele Muholis Transformation. The New York Times Magazine, October 8, 2015)Drake’s ascendance happened so instantly it felt effortless, achieved without struggle, almost to the point of seeming unearned. In Thank Me Now, he rapped about how he can relate to kids going straight to the league--a reference to high-school players so talented they skip college basketball and go straight to the NBA.(Simon Reynolds, How Drake Became the All-Pervading Master of Hyper-Reality Rap. The Guardian [UK], April 28, 2016)The miners were rescued in front of the worlds media and a billion rapt viewers.Jacqueline turned to the waiter and rattled off a sentence in German which brought to Charless eyes a look of  rapt admiration; and the waiter, evidently understanding quite easily what she had said, turned and hurried away.(Edgar Wallace, The Mouthpiece, 1935)  There had always been a shoebox on top of the stove full of baby squirrels rescued from a fallen pine, tenderly wrapped in flannel and bottle-fed into independence.(Pam Durban, Soon. The Southern Review, 1997)She was a fanatic about cleanliness and put out her little bit of garbage wrapped very neatly in yesterdays Christian Science Monitor and tied in a bow with a fresh piece of string.(James Alan McPherson, Gold Coast. The Atlantic Monthly, 1969) Usage Notes You might have rapped Tommy on the knuckles during his maths class in order to direct his attention to quadratic equations. Clearly the word rapped is the past tense of the verb to rap. If you are rapt, you are in a state of unearthly wonderment. It is a state induced by listening to great music, having a religious revelation, or being absorbed by your charismatic lecturer discoursing on the philosophy of Plato. There are also stories of being rapt and in that state being transported from one place to another without any tangible means. Something that is wrapped is something that is securely covered and possibly tied up in a convenient shape for transport or handing over to someone else.(David Rothwell, Dictionary of Homonyms. Wordsworth, 2007) Practice (a) The students listened to the guest speaker with _____ attention.(b) The man who sat in the wagon that moved slowly up the road wore an old quilt _____ around his shoulders and a corduroy cap pulled down over his eyes.(Robert Penn Warren, Christmas Gift. The Virginia Quarterly Review, 1938)  (c) Agatha got out of her car and marched up to the Ford and _____  on the window. The sallow-faced youth opened the window and demanded, Wot?(M.C. Beaton, As the Pig Turns. Thorndike, 2011) Answers to Practice Exercises: Rapped, Rapt, and Wrapped (a) The students listened to the guest speaker with  rapt  attention.(b) The man who sat in the wagon that moved slowly up the road wore an old quilt  wrapped  around his shoulders and a corduroy cap pulled down over his eyes.(Robert Penn Warren, Christmas Gift.  The Virginia Quarterly Review, 1938)  (c) Agatha got out of her car and marched up to the Ford and  rapped  on the window.  The sallow-faced youth opened the window and demanded, Wot?(M.C. Beaton,  As the Pig Turns. Thorndike, 2011)

Code Switching Free Essays

Urdu-English Code-Switching: The Use of Urdu Phrases and Clauses In Pakistani English (A Non-native Variety) Abstract This paper presents an analysis of Urdu-English code-switching in Pakistani English. However, data has been analysed only at the phrase and clause level. Based on the empirical data from Pakistani English newspapers and magazines, this paper aims to show that code-switching is not a grammarless phenomenon rather it is ruled governed activity at the phrase and clause level. We will write a custom essay sample on Code Switching or any similar topic only for you Order Now It also presents the brief overview of the use of English as a non-native variety. This paper suggests that variations and changes in a language are an integral part of bilingualism and multilingualism. All the present data shows that the occurrences of various Urdu phrases and clauses impose no ungrammatical effect on the construction of English syntax. Key words: Bilingualism, code-switching, non-native varieties of English Introduction This paper centres on the variations in the English language due to Urdu-English code-switching in Pakistan and also shows the significant role of the Urdu language in the formation of Pakistani English. Only those syntactic features that are found as a result of code-switching have been discussed. Mahboob (2003) described different phonological and grammatical aspects of Pakistani English, which are quite different from Standard British English. But in this paper, only that data has been taken into account where Urdu phrases and clauses have been used. This paper is interested in describing different aspects of language change in English when used in a non-native context i. e. Pakistan. First and foremost, ‘a great deal of interest has been generated in the English language as a result of its spread around the world and its use as an international language (Cheshire 1991:7). Now-a-days English has become a global language. According to Bamgbose, (2001:357) English is recognised as the dominating language in the world as globalisation comes to be universally accepted in political and academic discourse. The development of ‘globalisation’ has been associated with the dominance of the English language (Bottery 2000:6). English is used all over the world by millions of native and non-native speakers because of its dominant position. According to Crystal (2003:65), there are approximately 430 million L2 users and 330 million L1 users. So the non-native speakers use English more than the natives ones. However, these figures exclude learners of English, and Crystal suggests there may be as many as one billion of them. Being an international language, it is used almost in all the countries of the world. When people started using English in non-native contexts because of its growing popularity, it developed as a transplanted language. According to Kachru (1986:30): ‘A language may be considered transplanted if it is used by a significant numbers of speakers in social, cultural and geographical contexts different from the contexts in which it was originally used†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. a transplanted language is cut off from its traditional roots and begins to function in new surroundings, in new roles and new contexts’. Non-native Varieties of English Kachru (1978) was among the first to identify and delineate boundaries of a nativized variety of English in South Asia, which he terms as South Asian English (SAE). Kachru (1996) regarded SAE as an additional linguistic arm in the culture of identity. He believes that ‘nativization must be seen as the result of those productive linguistic innovations which are determined by the localized function of a second language variety, the culture of conversation and commutative strategies in new situations and transfer from local languages’ (Kachru 1986: 21-2). With this development, there was a gradual recognition and acknowledgement of the new and non-native varieties of English, e. g. Nigerian English, Indian English, Chicano English, Pakistani English, Singaporean English, Sri Lankan English etc. The term ‘New varieties’ of English’ implies that there are more or less recognizable varieties of spoken and/or written by groups of people’. (Platt et al. 1984:2) A new variety does not develop in isolation but it depends on the communicative needs of those who speak and write it. Such a variety is considered an interference variety because there is a clear linguistic and cultural interference from the first language and culture of the users. When a language is used in a different cultural context and social situation, several changes take place in its phonology, morphology, lexicon and syntax. A language so widely used has its own grammatical and linguistic system through which it conveys its distinction of meanings. These linguistic characteristics are usually transparent in its sound system, vocabulary and sentence construction. The non-native speakers develop a whole new range of expression to fulfil the communicative needs. Since the user of the non-native variety is bilingual, creativity is manifested in different kinds of mixing, switching, alteration and transcreation of codes. When two languages come in contact, it results in â€Å"inventiveness†. Bilingualism in itself is a source of creativity in language (Talaat 2003). Such varieties are so widespread and have such a long standing ‘that they may be thought stable and adequate enough to be regarded as varieties of English in their own right rather than stages on the way to a more native-like English’ (Quirk 1983:8) Urdu-English code-switching and Pakistani English English enjoys a very prestigious status in Pakistan. Its prevalence and power in Pakistan is growing very much. For many Pakistanis, English has become not only a â€Å"practical necessity†, but also â€Å"the language of opportunity, social prestige, power, success as well as social superiority†. Kachru (1997:227) pointed at the ‘ideological, cultural and elitist power of English’. Such power is vividly seen in Pakistan where people tend to switch from Urdu to English to create special effect. Urdu is the national language of Pakistan and one of the two official languages of Pakistan (the other official language being English). It is the most important language of literacy in the country. In the hierarchy of linguistic prestige, Urdu is placed lower only than English. In Pakistan, Urdu-English code-switching is a common characteristic of educated Pakistani bilinguals. Code-switching ccurs when two languages come in contact: ‘the alternation of two languages within a single discourse, sentence or constituent’ (Poplack 1980:581). This sociolinguistic phenomenon makes a great contribution in the creation of new and non-native varieties of English. When two languages come into contact, not only the phonological features but lexical items and syntactic pa tterns also manage to filter across from one language to another. English is used in Pakistan in a non-native context. Different changes can be observed in its phonology, vocabulary, and grammar and now it is recognized as a distinct variety of English i. . Pakistani English. Non-native varieties of English are an important aspect of language change and these varieties have emerged because of code-switching and code-mixing. According to Trudgill (1986: 1), ‘the languages that are in contact with each other socially may become changed linguistically, as a result of being in contact psychologically, in the competence of individual speaker’. Pakistani English has assumed a linguistic and cultural identity of its own. This identity manifests itself throughout the language at the word level, the phrase level and the sentence level. It is the natural consequence of its regular contact with the Urdu language. A large number of borrowings from Urdu and the regional languages of Pakistan have entered in Pakistani English (Baumgardner 1993). Certain lexical items may show a shift from their original Standard British English usage to Urduized meaning (Talaat 1993). In comparison with the borrowing in syntax and morphology, lexical items have the highest ease of borrowing and seem most likely to occur (Brutt-Griffler, 2002; Romaine, 1995). Such a vocabulary items in all the new varieties of English are largely drawn from the areas that are significantly different to the geo-social-cultural context of British English (Fernado 2003). As, no reliable study on Urdu-English code-switching at the level of the phrase and clause is available, this paper is likely to bridge the gap. The code-switching data in this paper focuses on the use of Urdu phrases and clauses in the English language and shows that its occurrence imposes no ungrammatical effect on the structure of English syntax. The data has been collected from the following printed Pakistani English newspaper and magazines: 1. Dawn (daily) (Lahore) 2. Herald (monthly) (Karachi) 3. Mag (weekly) (Karachi) In this paper, code-switching is divided into two categories. They are inter-sentential switching, that is switching from one language to another at a sentence boundary, and intra-sentential code-switching, or code-mixing when the switch takes place within one sentence. In the following section, we will analyse the intra-sentential code-switching in Pakistani English at the level of phrase. Phrasal insertions A phrase is a group of words, which does not carry a complete sense. Formally a phrase is defined as a syntactic structure that has syntactic properties derived from its head (Mahajan 2001). Basic phrase structure is a universal feature of all human languages. The Urdu language is not different from English as far as the structure of phrase is concerned. There are a fair number of Urdu multi-word switches in this section that are either two word or three word phrases occurring in the English clause or sentence. The purpose is to introduce the position of various Urdu phrases inserted in English syntax. Some researchers suggest that switches that are larger than one word are â€Å"true code-switches† but one-word switches are borrowings. However, it is not within the goals of this paper to distinguish code-switches from borrowings. In this section, we will analyze the occurrence of various NPs, Adj Ps and PPs in the English sentences. Since phrase insertion is always a complex kind of switching, it demands a high degree of proficiency and accuracy from the bilinguals involved in code-switching. Noun phrase A noun phrase is a word or group of words, which acts as the subject, complement or object of a clause, or as the object of a preposition. A noun phrase always has an obligatory head noun and optional modifier and qualifier. (m) H (q) For example in the Urdu phrase ‘ mera bhai apaney dostoon key saath’, (my brother with his friends) mera is the modifier of the head noun ‘bhai’ while Urdu postpositional phrase ‘dostoon key saath’ is qualifying the head noun. The structure of Urdu noun phrases used in Pakistani English is very diverse. Here are some examples of the use of the Urdu noun phrases occurring as the subject of the English verbs: 1. A poor hari (the farmer) can be sent to the gallows even on the mild accusation of a crime leveled against him by a noble. (March 27, 2007 D) 2. An honorable sardar or wadera (the landlord or chief) can walk free even after proven record of the most heinous kinds of against crimes him. (March 27, 2007 D) 3. They alleged that the naib nazim (the vice municipal officer) was receiving threats to force him to part ways with the PPP-backed Awam Dost panel. (March 04, 2007 D) In the first two examples, the English adjectives are modifying the English nouns in a noun phrase while in the third example both the adjective and noun are from the Urdu language. All the noun phrases have the English determiners ‘a’, ‘an’ and ‘the’ respectively in the beginning of the sentences. Urdu noun phrase as an apposition of another noun It is very interesting to note the use of an Urdu noun phrase as apposition in Pakistani English. ‘Apposition’ means the placing of a noun group after a noun or pronoun in order to identify something or someone or give more information about them. In the following example, we can see the use of an Urdu noun phrase as an apposition of another noun. Here the Urdu noun phrase is giving information about the proper noun ‘Haji Ramzan’. 1. Five militants who tried to kidnap tehsil municipal officer Hameedullah on October 8 were forced to give up their hostage after Haji Ramzan, the tehsil naib nazim (the city vice municipal officer), and his men confronted them on the main Tank-Jandola road. (November 2006 H) Urdu phrase introduced by an English adverb: In the examples below, the English relative adverb â€Å"as† introduces the Urdu stretches of words embedded in English. This type of switching is very rare and demands high proficiency. 1. Amjad considered her as ustad se ziyada dost (friend rather than teacher). (January 22, 2006 D) 2. And an old friend of hers, a female writer, was so infuriated on being referred to as a ‘Cycle wali larki’ (female cyclist) that she broke relations with her for good. (March 25, 2007 D) 3. According to one of them, they were not shunned by the public as lula, langra and apahaj (lame and paralyzed). (December 04, 2005 D) 4. What was sworn upon yesterday as guiding principle will be chucked at the altar of expediency tomorrow as mere siyasi bayan (political statement). January 22, 2006 D) Genitive phrases In Urdu, genitives are indicated with ka/ke/ke as a morph-word. The choice of these words depends on gender, number and case ending of the head noun. However, the English word ‘of’ is equivalent to all these. The genitive or possessive form of Urdu noun takes different positions in English syn tax and imposes no ungrammatical effect in the construction. In the following examples, the Urdu noun phrases are used as the complement of an English verb of incomplete predication and occurring at the end of the sentence. The Urdu noun phrase begins with the English determiner ‘an’ in the first example. 1. Atif Amin feels â€Å"it’s true that to some extend visiting therapists is an ameeron ka nakhra. (arrogance of the rich) (July 31, 2005 D) 2. The colloquial phrase used for this punishment was kala ki saza. (severe punishment) (July 24, 2005 D) In some cases the Urdu noun phrase is used as the subject of the English syntax. In example 2 the Urdu noun phrase begins with English determiner ‘the’. 1. 1. â€Å"Logon ki samajh† (understanding of the people) is all he has to say about the society’s attitude towards dance. January 12, 2006 D) 2. The Islamabad ka muqadas darakht (Holy tree of Islamabad) revolved around a popular Banyan tree that stood in sector E-7 but was a few months back burned down. (May 21, 2006 D) 3. Promptly can the reply from Fateh Muhammad Mailk, who argued that kufar ka fatwa (Infidelity claim) is nothing new with us. (May 21, 2006 D ) Sometimes, the Urdu noun phrases are also inserted in the middle of the English syntax. In the following examples, we can see the use of the Urdu noun phrases as the complement of an English verb. 1. Publications have just become catalogues and designers have become shadi ka jora mills (Wedding cloth house), not aiming to produce ethereal pieces any more. (September 25, 2005 D) 2. Rohit also revived the age-old warak ka kaam (work of silver gold leaf) once used for mughal royalty. (January 22, 2005 D) 3. Naturally they bathed themselves properly after every hug as the grandma had a smell of sarson ka tel (mustard’oil) and desi soap all over here. (July 31, 2005 D) 4. I am thrilled to see a lovely jurao ka set (precious Ornament) that President Ayub Khan presented her when she visited Pakistan in the 1960s. March 25, 2007) In the example 3 the double genitive has been used with English mixed in a noun phrase. Adjective Phrase A word or a group of words that does the work of an adjective is called an adjective phrase. Adjective phrases are usually formed from an intensifier that is optional, followed by the head (H) that is often an adjective In Pakistani English, Urdu adjec tive phrases may occur as a predicate adjective or inside the noun phrase. In the examples below, an Urdu adjective phrase has been inserted in the English sentence. 1. He is called sher ka bacha (bashful, brave) and mard ka bacha (high minded). January 08, 06 D) In the above example, Urdu evaluative metaphors that reflect Pakistani social customs, localized attitude and behavior have been used in English syntax. In a typical Pakistani context, a person having great courage and with a keen sense of honor is termed as ‘sher ka bacha’ (lion’s child). In the following example the English intensifier ‘very’ has been used with an Urdu adjective. This kind of code-switching is very rare. 2. Their response, ‘ I think you are right madam,’ said a young man, city life and modern education makes men very beghairat (dishonorable) (November 2006 H) In the examples given below, the Urdu adjective phrases are modifying the English nouns in the noun phrases. 3. It was a taiz raftar (very speedy) bus and I merely sat on it as well. (February 26, 2005 D) 4. The 60-minutes interview was largely spent in advocate Bukhari name dropping, saying he grew up with the lordships of the Superior Court and what payare insaan (lovely men) they are. (March 18, 2007 D) Example 4 reflects a very complex kind of code-switching. The Urdu stretch of words has been introduced by the English word ‘what’, but actually it is giving the emphasis on the Urdu adjective ‘payare’. The use of ‘what’ has changed the syntactic structure and it seems that it has been used to focus on ‘payare insaan’. The introduction of ‘what’ has changed the word order of the sentence. One important thing worthwhile to mention here is that it seems harder to break up a relative clause/phrase than other types of subordination. It is quite problematic to have a relative pronoun from one language and the rest of the clause in the other. The code-switching data reported from other language pairs also show that switching between the relative pronoun and the clause that it introduces is rare. Nortier 1990) Mostly, the English adjectives are necessarily uninflected. They undergo no morphological changes with the variations in the nouns they qualify. However, in Pakistani English, Urdu adjectives, sometimes, may be inflected according to the rules of Urdu grammar because of number and gender as in the above example. For example: Payara (lovely) is a n inflected adjective e. g. Payara larka (lovely boy), Payari larki (lovely girl), Payare insaan (lovely people). Prepositional phrase Urdu has a postposition instead of English preposition, which differs in the way that it precedes objects. A collective term used for both preposition and postposition is adposition. In typical Urdu adposition phrases, adposition comes at the end. An Urdu postposition phrase is syntactically inserted in English syntax in the following example: 1. Both of them unhurt â€Å"Khuda key fazal sey† (By the grace of God) while Shazia became paraplegic. (January 08, 2006 D) It is very interesting to note that the Urdu postposition phrase occurs at the same position where its English equivalent could have been. Verbal phrase A verb phrase is a word or a group of words that does not have a subject and a predicate of its own and does the work of a verb. In Urdu language, auxiliaries occur after the main verb in contrast with English where auxiliaries occur before the main verb. Urdu verb phrases occur very rarely in Pakistani English because they have to undergo a complex morphological change as compared to noun phrases. However, sometimes an Urdu verbal phrase is also inserted in English syntax. Here is an example of the use of an Urdu verb phrase: 1. My colleagues kept worrying that piracy ho rahi hay (is going on) we should stop it; I kept saying, â€Å"hooney do†. (let it be) (September 11, 2005 D) ho rahi hai ain verb Progressive form auxiliary The above-mentioned data and examples suggest that Urdu phrases are frequently used in Pakistani English and its occurrences at various positions in a sentence seem to be quite appropriate. Urdu phrases obey the rules of English grammar everywhere in the sentences. After analyzing intra-sentential code-switching at the level of phrase, now we want to turn to inter-sentential code- switching in Pakistani English. The next section begins with ‘inter-clausal code switching’. Inter-clausal code-switching: As mentioned earlier, code-switching occurring at the sentence level is called inter-sentential code-switching. The term â€Å"inter-clausal code-switching† is used to refer to switches occurring at the clause boundaries. In the present data, switched Urdu clauses can include a coordinated clause, a subordinate clause or a clause/phrase introduced by an English adverb. Urdu clauses that are coordinated with an English clause through the use of coordinating conjunction are classified as coordinated clauses. Urdu subordinate clauses are also used with main English clause. We can find the English subordinate clause with Urdu main clause as well. Mostly, an English subordinate clause gives a warning or advice about the consequences of an action or attitude. It is relatively common in Pakistani English that Urdu proverbs and maxims occur at the periphery of an English clause. There are also switched Urdu full clauses that are syntactically independent of the preceding English clause, although there is still thematic coherence in terms of their reference and actions. The data exemplified in the following sections will reveal how different types of Urdu clauses are used in Pakistani English. Co-ordinated Clauses: In Pakistani English, co-ordinated clauses are joined by English as well as Urdu conjunctions. However Urdu conjunctions do not occur quite frequently. A conjunction that often conjoins the English clauses to the Urdu adjacent clauses is â€Å"and†. Here is an example of the use of the English coordinating conjunction: 1. Why don’t we all go together to New Delhi? N1 ki shaddi ki shopping bhi ho jaye gi (There will be shopping of N1’s wedding) and we can have much fun. (June 20, 2005 D) As can be seen in the above example, there is switching here back and forth between English and Urdu. An Urdu clause is embedded in English and English is taken up again. In the following example, an Urdu conjunction â€Å"leykin† (but) is inserted in the English sentence. The reason for the use of Urdu conjunction in Pakistani English is directionality of code-switching, because most of the times, switched Urdu clauses follow the English main clause. This Urdu conjunction has a pragmatic effect as a discourse marker in drawing attention to the utterance. 1. We reached there in time, lakin no body was there to receive us. (Spoken English) In Nortier’s Moroccan Arabic/Dutch code-switching data (1990), the Arabic onjunction â€Å"walikan† (but) is also most frequent and is the one that conjoins two clauses that are both in another language. Taking a discourse marker from another language has a pragmatic effect on the whole utterance. Another interesting feature of Pakistani English that has been found as a result of Urdu-English code-switching is the use of an inde pendent Urdu clause or sentence with English in written as well as spoken English. Here are three examples where Urdu clauses are syntactically independent; however, they share a semantic relationship with each other: 1. Very soon, I will be a big star in Bollywood, main naumeed nahin hougni. (I will not be disappointed) (July 16, 2006 D) 2. He is set to release some very interesting films, which he describes as happy-go-lucky movies, aaj kal happy fims ka zamana hai. (Now-a-days people like happy movies) (December 11, 2005 D) 3. I cannot make new friends. Main buri, mairai dausti burai. (I am bad, friendship with me is bad) That’s all (March 25, 2007 D) Subordinated clauses: Urdu subordinated clauses are also used in Pakistani English, which is a very important aspect of inter-sentential code-switching. The subordinating conjunction is not always in the language of the clause that it introduces. Both Urdu and English subordinating conjunctions are used to join main and subordinated clauses. We can classify this section to two main broad categories: 1. Urdu subordinate clauses with an English main clause 2. English subordinate clauses with a Urdu main clause Firstly, we will look at the occurrence of the Urdu subordinate clauses with an English main clause. Urdu subordinate clauses with an English main clause: Different Urdu subordinate clauses are embedded in the English sentences in Pakistani English. The following two kinds of Urdu subordinate clauses have been found in Pakistani English: 1. The noun clause 2. The adverb clause Noun clause: The data exemplified in this section will show that a noun clause is a subordinate clause that does the work of a noun in a complex sentence. It can be used in Pakistani English as: 1. The subject of a verb 2. The complement of a verb 3. The object of a preposition In the following example, the switched Urdu noun clause has been used as the subject of an English verb: 1. Sub kutch chalet hai is their dictum. (June 12, 2005 D) ‘All is right’ is their dictum. Most of the times, a switched noun clause acts as a complement of an English verb. Here are some examples: 1. To underline the point he added is main science ki koi baat nahin hai. (December 25, 2005 D) To underline the point he added there is nothing scientific in this. 2. He got all mixed up and asked acha aap begum commondo hai. (October 30, 2005 D) He got all mixed up and asked well. You are Mrs. Commando. 3. I get looks from them all and a couple said aap aagay aa jain. (October 09, 2006 D) I get looks from them all and a couple said you come in front please. 4. She couldn’t resist the bohat aachi movie hai. May 29, 2005 D) She couldn’t resist it’s the very best movie. In the examples below, the switched Urdu clause has been used as an object of an English preposition. 1. No one at the CCB was willing to say anything except that is ka order ooper se aya hai. (May 07, 2006 D) 2. No one at the CCB was willing to say anything except that we have orders from our seniors. 3. As they turned to me, I shrugged my shoulder with a ‘Bhai dekh lo, I am not carrying you purse’ (November 2006 H) 4. As they turned to me, I shrugged my shoulder with a brother you can see; I am not carrying you purse. Sometimes, it’s very interesting to note the use of an Urdu noun clause as a complement of a verb of incomplete predication. 1. The whole thing is that key bhaiya sab se bada rupaiya. (February 12, 2006 D) The whole thing is that bother, money is all. Adverb clause: As we have seen through the above examples that the noun clause acts as a noun in complex sentences, in the same way the function of an adverb clause is that of an adverb in complex sentences. In the following example, an Urdu adverb conditional clause has been embedded in the English sentence. However, the Urdu subordinate clause precedes the English main clause. The subordinating conjunction is in Urdu, whereas the clause that follows it is in English: 1. Aap ko kissi cheez sey strings ketney hoon, to its best to run from it. (June 26, 2005 D) If you want to cut the cord off, then its best to run from it. English subordinate clauses with Urdu main clause: In some cases, English clause is subordinate to an Urdu main clause. In the following example the English noun clause is joined with the Urdu main clause through the English subordinating conjunction â€Å"that†. 1. Mujhe shikayat hai that we are not making history. (July 31, 2005 D) I have a complaint that we are not making history. In the example below, the English conditional clause is subordinate to the Urdu main clause. In this example, the English subordinate clause precedes the Urdu main clause: 1. The police asked both of us to settle things between ourselves. Because if it becomes court case, then mamla lamba ho jaiga. (February 19, 2006 D) The police asked both of us to settle things between ourselves. Because if it becomes a court case, then it will be a lengthy process. Repetitions and other switches Sometimes, Urdu phrases or clauses are used just as the repetition of an English phrase or clause. The purpose of this type of switching is to give emphasis. However, in spoken it is used to address different audiences. 1. Take care, apna bahut khayal rakhiya ga. (December 18, 2005 D) 2. They shouted for his execution. Zen ko phansy do. (October 02, 2005 D) 3. Feroz was very drunk. Usko chad gayi thi. (May 07, 2006 D) 4. He thought that Geeta Bali was the daughter of a certain Dr. Bali,a dentist in Aligarh, who was shocked when one day, Sikandar asked him: Aap ki sahabzadi kaisi hain? (How’s your daughter? (November 2006 H) In some cases, Urdu clauses are used to quote maxim and proverb or some other person in Pakistani English. Here are some examples: 1. My unbending procrastination is one thing that repels the beauty of the world but they say ‘sabar ka phal meetha’ (patience has its reward) (January 22, 2006 D) 2. Talk about ‘lakkar hazam, pathar hazamâ₠¬â„¢ (very powerful and digestive stomach), they deserve a batter deal, if only for their patience in eating such swill day after day. (October 2006 M) 3. He gave the example of the phrase â€Å"auratein bhot bolteen hain† (females are very talkative). August 07, 2005 D) 4. She was very touched and impressed, especially when the waiter uttered these words ‘baaji, mehman sey paisay nahin letay (sister, we don’t charges from guests)’. (July 17, 2005 D) 5. She opened the Q and A session by saying ‘aab court aap ki ball main hai’ (Now all depends on you). (May 29,2005 D) Conclusion The data and examples presented in this paper demonstrate that code-switching affects Pakistani English at the phrase and clause level and Pakistani English has its unique features. This paper has shown the variations in English syntax when it is used in a non-native context i. . Pakistan. This paper shows that in code-switching many traces of native language can be obs erved on the foreign language. The grammatical usage of Urdu language on English is visible here in the above mentioned examples. Some linguists are of the opinion that there is no language that has not been under influence of another language. English is no exception in this regard. Several changes are taking place in the English language. Isolated languages are rarely met in the global village. Bilingualism or multilingualism is a characteristic feature of modern society. According to Wardhaugh (1998: 100) ‘Command of only a single variety of language, whether it be a dialect, style or register, would appear to be an extremely rare phenomenon, one likely to occasion comment. Most speakers command several varieties of the language they speak, and bilingualism, even multilingualism, is the norm for many people throughout the world rather than unilingualism’. Note: I would like to thank Professor Dr. Mubina Talaat for her valuable comments on my paper. References Bamgbose, Ayo (2001) World Englishes and Globalisation. World Englishes, 20(3), 357-63 Baumgardner, R. J. , Kennedy, A. E. H. , and Shamim, F. (1993) The Urduization of English in Pakistan. In Baumgardner, R (Ed. ) The Englis Language in Pakistan, The Oxford Press, Karachi. Bottery, Mike (2000) Education, Policy and Ethics. London: Continuum. Brutt-Griffler, Janina (2002) World Englishes: A Study of Its Development. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. Cheshire, Jenny (1991) English around the World: Linguistic Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Crystal, David (2003) English as a Global Language. 2nd edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Fernado, S (2003) The Vocabulary of Sri Lankan English. Paper presented at 9th International Conference on Sri Lankan Studies. Sri Lanka Kachru, Braj B. (1978) Lexical innovations in South Asian English. In Indian writing in English. Edited by Ramesh Mohan. Delhi: Orient Longman Ltd. ,pp. 80-100 Kachru, Braj B. (1986) The Alchemy of English: the Spread, Functions, and Models Of Non-native English. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Kachru, Braj B. 1996) Series Editor’s Preface. In Robert J. Baumgardner (ed. ) 1996. South Asian English: Structure, Use and Users. Delhi: Oxford University Press. Kachru, Braj. B. (1997) Resources for Research and Teaching. In World Englishes 2000. Edited by Larry E. Smith and Michael L. Forman. Honolulu: College of Languages. Linguistics, and Literature, University of Hawaii and the East- West Centre , pp. 209-51 Mahajan, A (2001) Complex Predicates and Ca se in Hindi, in M. Saito et al. (eds. ) Preceedings of Nanzan GLOW, 275-296. Nagoya, Japan: Nanzan University. Mahboob, A (2003) The English Language in Pakistan: A Brief Overview of its History and Linguistics. Pakistan journal of language, vol. 4, no. 1 Nortier, J. (1990) Dutch-Moroccan Arabic code-switching among Moroccans in the Netherlands. Dordrecht: Foris. Platt, J. , Weber, H and Lain H. M. (1984). The New Englishes, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Poplack, S. (1980) ‘Sometimes I start a sentence in Spanish y termino espanol : toward a typology of code-switching in Amastea, J. and Elias- Olivares, L. 1982. Spanish in the United States Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Quirk, R and Greenbaum, S (1983) A University Grammar of English, Harlow: Longman Romaine, Susan (1995) Bilingualism (second edition). Oxford: Blackwell. Talaat, Mubina (1993) Lexical Variation in Pakistani English. In Baumgardner, R (Ed. ) The English Language in Pakistan, The Oxford Press, Karachi. Talaat, Mubina (2003) Some Aspects of Creativity in Pakistani English or Improvised Communication, Pakistan journal of language, vol. 4, no. 1 Trudgill, P (1986). Dialects in contact. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Wardhaugh, Ronald (1998) An Introduction to Sociolinguistics (third edition). Oxford: Blackwell. How to cite Code Switching, Essay examples

Caucasia Music Is an Identifier free essay sample

As we follow Birdie throughout her story, not only will we see her change, but he music around her changes as well. Her story begins in the sasss, the era of funk music, a style of music where African American musicians blended elements Of jazz, soul and Cole and Birdie struggle with their identities after enrolling at the Markham School, an African-American pride focused institution. Soon, they learn to embrace their black culture, picking up Ebonies, and changing their appearance to match their African American peers.Here is where the reader will notice the music Essen subtly incorporates into her novel. Earth, Wind, ; Fire, AY Green, James Brown, al famous African American musicians during that time period. These musicians were iconic figures in the African American community, influencing many other funk and artists at the time. From her mothers need to go underground, Birdie finds herself in New Hampshire. Soon, they learn to embrace their black culture, picking up Ebonies, and changing their appearance to match their African American peers. Here is where the reader will notice the music Essen subtly incorporates into her novel.Earth, Wind, ; Fire, AAA Green, James Brown, all famous African American musicians during that time period. These musicians were iconic figures in the African American community, influencing many other funk and R;B artists at the time. From her mothers need to go underground, Birdie finds herself in New Hampshire. A new name, a new story, a new life, she is forced to change herself into a white, Jewish girl in order to live in this all-white town. Alongside her transformation, she is exposed to a different type of music that she compares to trashcans rolling down a hill. 170) Birdie explains that disco was not the type of music that people in this town listen to. Although she was not used to it, she took up classic rock bands, such as the Rolling Stones and Hall and Tastes, in order to fit in. Birdies Journey to find her roots and her identity forces her to change several times throughout this story. Her ability to pass at being black and being white is solely based on the different cultures that she embraces. Music plays a quintessential role in this identity. When she was Birdie, she listened to funk and disco. When she was Jesse, she listened to rock.Her rife encounter with the kids in New York serves as a reminder of these dualities. The music that she heard sparked her memories of what she listened to when she was Birdie, ultimately bringing back what she had forgotten. Music served as her link to her past life, one where she Identified herself as black. While Essen may not have Intentionally stressed this connection, music Is an Integral part of Identity. From this novel, the reader is lead to believe that black people listen to one genre and white people listen to another. The derogatory statements her white peers make In reference to disco support this assumption. The reader learns that music Is not Just music. Music Is an identifier. BY alexia,25 products of a biracial couple, they struggle with the growing racial tensions in sasss America. The sisters share an inseparable bond, always speaking to each other in disappear? [Birdie] said it aloud (8). She soon learns, much like the Elements, that she would have to learn to change form in order to survive. Music is a reoccurring element that Essen weaves into her writing. As we follow Birdie throughout her story, begins in the sasss, the era of funk music, a style of music where African American Caucasians blended elements of Jazz, soul and R;B. Cole and Birdie struggle with their identities after enrolling at the Markham School, an African-American pride focused institution. Soon, they learn to embrace their black culture, picking up to her past life, one where she identified herself as black. While Essen may not have intentionally stressed this connection, music is an integral part of identity. From this people listen to another. The derogatory statements her white peers make in reference to disco support this assumption. The reader learns that music is not Just music. Music is an identifier.

Channel Tunnel between England and France

WEB AUDIT of FRESHLINE ORGANICS

WEB AUDIT of FRESHLINE ORGANICS Free Online Research Papers The purpose of this report is to present the finding of the web audit for the company named above. The company is owned by certified grower Werner Frtsch while the online website is the partnership venture equally owned by Werner Frtsch and his wife Lily that distributes Freshline’s groceries. Organisational Objective The organisational objectives of Freshline Organics Pty Ltd are as follow:- Promoting Sale of Organic Groceries and Products Online. Similar to Freshline’s differentiated high quality focus strategy for its’ physical stores, its online activities aim to extend this strategy to the internet. Freshline.com.au has taken over the main purpose of the online activities, namely the sale of organic groceries over the internet and their delivery. To supplement the online sales, it also sells other organic dry products (i.e. nuts, grains and dried fruits) as well as environmentally-friendly products (i.e. skin care, hair care, bath/shower, baby care and household cleaning). On time Deliveries of Fresh Groceries to Customer at an affordable price. Freshline differentiates its service with high freshness, accuracy and punctuality enabled by delivery teams of efficient van drivers. Promoting Health Eating Lifestyle by consuming organic harvested food. Much of the organic produce comes directly from organic farms certified by Australian Certified Organic (ACO) in the Serpentine district south-east of Perth. The remainder of the produce is purchased from organic and conventional wholesalers. For instance, the biodynamic meats which sell to customers are supplied by Boatshed Quality Meats. Positioning of the digital strategy and web site image. The messages promoted from Freshlines’ traditional and online media are complementing each other. Just like its’ physical shops, their online offer uses a differentiation strategy targeting the upmarket. The services is designed to target affluent, busy people who have no time to shop, possible not living close to Freshline shops, but still prefer Freshline over other grocery shops or supermarkets. Using the table below, Freshline online does try to attract the same kind of customers that also visit the store, but also tries to snap up customers that are not satisfied with the services offered by other online groceries shops. Source: Mohammed, Rafi A. Fisher, Robert J. Jaworski, Bernard J., Paddison, Gordon J. 2003. Internet Marketing, International Edition. New York, McGraw-Hill. Being located in western suburb of Perth, where Freshline has its strongest presence, allows a strong brand leverage of the existing Freshline brand. Added to Freshline’s high quality products, their online business can differentiate itself from online competitors with the service that focus on supplies of high freshness organic groceries to customers on time at affordable costs. Competitive Analysis 1) Orgainic Collective (organiccollective.com.au) The Organic Collective is a small West Australian owned business offering a reliable online service of delivering mixed seasonal certified organic groceries to customers in the Fremantle and Perth Metro area. Organic Collective centres on delivering right to your door and letting consumer decide the delivery arrangements. If customer was not at home to receive delivery, arrangement can be made with delivery man like placing of the delivery in a sheltered position on the front veranda or a pre-determined location, etc The vibrant site breaks down the products into 6 different categories(organic fruits vegetable mix box, organics groceries, environment cleaning products, personal care products, organic supplements and other organic products to choose from and, when clicking the link, gives you the different products under categories. The site offers PayPal system for customers to make payment online. 2) Mimsbrook Farm Biodynamic Food Stores (biodynamic-food.com/index.html) Mimsbrook Biodynamic/Organic Food Store provides a convenient farm location for the residents of Perth to purchase quality biodynamic/organic groceries, milk, dry goods and meat that are grown and farmed without using synthetic fertilisers or pesticides. It is a family business operated by Ms Carmel Bainbridge and her son Steven Bradtke, both of whom have been committed to certified biodynamic agriculture in Western Australia since Year 1995. Not only Mimsbrook website look very impressive, it also does has something that other online organic shops do not, that is â€Å"Holiday† other that organic groceries and products. Clicking on an icon †Holiday† on the left column of homepage links you to another webpage which offers a holiday accommodation at Mimsbrook farm Guesthouse near Perth, Western Australia. This webpage displays various prices for suites/studios at this fantastic farm Guesthouse. If customers wish to book an accommodation, all you have to is to click at this host name icon â€Å"Carmel Bainbridge† for website to generate an email to send it to the host. Once the receiving email with necessary information is verified and confirmed with customers, the host will prepare accommodation for them. 3) Organic N Green Shop (organicngreen.com.au) Organic N Green Shop is a â€Å"one stop† online shop comprising an organic shop and cafe in Wanneroo, Western Australia, Its’ services include the selling of full range of organic fruits, vegetables, meats, dairy, groceries, cakes, personal care, baby care, laundry items, etc and home delivery of its products. The Organic green.com has a clean layout homepage with clear statement about what the company does. The company logo is prominently on top left hand corner of homepage and in proximity to a list of function keys, services and products offered within the site. The search key is also unique in the fact that the user can start shopping right away if they know the products they want by searching for keywords that brings up all products with that name, allowing for easy shopping. In addition, Organic Green shop offers cash discount for first time customers who surf the website; print homepage and show it entitles a 15% discount for the organic groceries purchases for the first time. Alternately, the customers can use to waive delivery charge for their first home delivery order. Content and maximisation of digital and Internet features An audit analysis includes a comprehensive evaluation of the following areas was carried out:- 1. Homepage Assessment The homepage of the freshline.com is quite neat and it provides online visitors with key information about the business as well as the products and services the business. The company logo† is prominently positioned on top centre of homepage and in close proximity to clickable menu which is easily accessible. 2. Framework and Navigation Overall, the framework and navigation of the Freshline.com is intuitive and easy to navigate. The navigation placed on the left column of the page is a consistent feature throughout the website. Navigation links for each page are also positioned prominently and easily located. The Navigation links do have expended information to further describe the content of the destination. The web pages contain anchor links to facilitate fast browsing. Standardize placement of navigation, header and footer helps to orient the online users at all times. 3. Layout Design / Use of Graph Page layout and design of Freshline.com looks simple and easy to understand. The recurring text, modules and graphics are consistent throughout the pages on the website. The fonts used on the website are of good sizes which the content easy to read. Freshline.com.au uses some of picture jpg and icons to enhance its’ webpage but it did not fully utilize graphics or picture to promote the online products 4. Site Content The site contents in Freshline.com are clear and concise enough regardless of the user’s field of expertise. The mention of the company history is brief and to the point. The website which strongly promoting health eating lifestyle further elaborate the meanings of some organic terms used (i.e. organic food, farming, biodynamic food, Australia certified organic, etc). This clarity of the site content as well as its’ organization has played a major role in keeping and converting the visitors into customers. 5. Feedback and Contacts Freshline.com encourages both current and prospective customers contact them with feedback and suggestion by using interactive form provided within the website. 6. Privacy policy Lack of privacy policy as online customers are increasingly concerned about their privacy with regards to online shopping and repayment of goods. 7. Interactive Elements (Forms) Freshline.com uses this feature to enhance some sections of the website:- o Contact and feedback from which allows user to input feedback and suggestion. o Ordering of organic product using online Shopping Cart. o Payment of online goods via the secure credit payment page. All form labels are alighted with their controls and positioned intuitively for the user. 8. Search Engine optimization (SEO) SEO refers to key components programmed into a web page which search engines will index, store and reference when queries into those topics. Based on my finding, though each contains title tags that summarise the content of the page. But the description tags are not utilized within each page which prevent the appropriate information from being displayed in a search engine listing as well as reduces search engine visibility of the page. 9. Search Engine Visibility Many web users start their search for product and company information through the use of a general search or directories. To determine how easy it is find this freshline.com.au from web, I have conducted search exercise on Australian Top five search engines using the company name and keyword/key phases. The results are summarized below. Keyword Position for Freshline.com.au on Australian Search Engines Directories as of 10 Sept 2009 Keywords Google Australia Yahoo!7 Nine MSM (Bing) Ansearch.com Australia AltaVista Australia Freshline 1 1 1 1 1 Freshline organics 1 1 1 1 1 Organics 15 Not on first 5 page Not on first 5 page Not on first 5 page Not on top 5 page Organics grocery 7 49 29 16 14 Biodynamic meat 8 9 6 12 9 Online groceries shop Australia 13 8 19 24 8 Basically, this website can be found across the web using the company name â€Å"Freshline† and Freshline organics. 10. Site Search Module No search function is available which used specified words or instruct a search engine to retrieve information within this website. Summary The Sample, Inc., website has a reasonably good, clean and simple design that will not intimidate or confuse visitors to the site. Navigation menus are well positioned and are consistent throughout the entire site. Good navigation is important for a site that contains so many products and pages. The current online strategy deployed (using digital and internet features that we discussed before the summary) has able to increase some foot traffic into their shops as well as visitors to Freshline.com but the impact of increase is not very significant. Because of website’s limitations:- Web-pages look unattractive, even quite boring for anyone to look further. Website did not use these: Search Engine Optimization (SE0), Search Engine visibility, site search module, etc to boost web traffic and visibility . Freshline is not able to attract big volume of online customers to the website. A more thorough dissuasion will be discussed in next assessment 3 on development of a digital strategy for this business. References freshline.com.au Australia Certified Organic (bfa.com.au/) Mohammed, Rafi A. Fisher, Robert J. Jaworski, Bernard J., Paddison, Gordon J. 2003. Internet Marketing, International Edition. New York; McGrawHill. organiccollective.com.au organicngreen.com.au/ biodynamic-food.com/index.html google.com.au/ http://au.yahoo.com/ http://ninemsn.com.au/ ansearch.com.au/ http://au.altavista.com/ Research Papers on WEB AUDIT of FRESHLINE ORGANICSAnalysis of Ebay Expanding into AsiaMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductRiordan Manufacturing Production PlanThe Project Managment Office SystemOpen Architechture a white paperInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesPETSTEL analysis of IndiaDefinition of Export QuotasAnalysis Of A Cosmetics AdvertisementBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of Self

Essay subject is Auditing and is about Applied Graphene Materials Plc

Subject is Auditing and is about Applied Graphene Materials Plc - Essay Example Failure by the auditors to give this view compromises the quality of the audit that is carried out. Audit risk includes any factor at the discretion of the auditor that may cause a material misstatement or even omissions in the financial statements of a company (Dotel, 2015). These risks may arise in different forms in the audit report and the financial statements. First, by an auditor failing to emphasize a matter that is of significance to the users of the financial statements in the audit report, audit risk arises. Secondly, an auditor may provide an opinion on the financial statements where no such opinion may be reasonably given as a result of the significant limitation of scope in the audit performance (Zuca, 2013). Audit risk is a component of three major risks namely, inherent risk, detection risk, and control risk. All these three risks are likely to be encountered while performing an audit. The auditor is therefore expected to assess the level of risk pertaining to each of the three components of audit risk. Inherent risk refers to the risk of material misstatements in a company’s financial statements due to the error of omission. The error of omission of key components of an audit in the audit report arises because of other factors apart from the failures of business internal controls. This component of audit risk is common in companies that have more complex transactions (Schwartz, 2013). Control risk refers the risk of a material misstatement in the company’s financial statements due the failure of operation of relevant controls in a business. In order to reduce the instances of fraud and error within an organization, there is the need for the companies to have proper inter nal controls. Control risk becomes high when a business does not have adequate internal control systems thus creating opportunities for fraud and errors in the financial statements. Furthermore, in order to prevent this

Explanation of I Believe That Deep Down All Human Beings Are Really Essay

Explanation of I Believe That Deep Down All Human Beings Are Really Good Quote by Anne Frank - Essay Example The Holocaust, which claimed the writer’s life, involved the killing of hundreds of thousands of innocent Jews. The author believed that the evil would soon end, and peace would prevail. She had the belief that the people who were undertaking the massacre would come to their mind and realize the harm that they cause, realizing the good that is still in their hearts. The quote means that people have two sides, the good and the bad, and no matter how the evil side is, the good side can still be portrayed. I disagree with this quote. People do certainly have good sides, but they do not apply to everybody that they interact with. For this quote to be applicable to all humans, people would be considering the implications of their actions on others before undertaking these activities. In the worst scenario, if all humans had some good on them, they would see how other people are suffering and have empathy for them. The mere assumption that humans are capable of changing does not mean that everybody can. Some people are stuck in beliefs that good will happen to them if they commit heinous actions. There are occurrences that prove not all humans have good in them. One critical phenomenon is the historical Johnstown massacre in the US 1978 which claimed the lives of over 900 people (The Guardian, n.p). The cult leader Jim Jones forced his followed to drink poisoned juice. Those who declined were injected with the poisoned or shot dead (The Guardian, n.p). Another issue that proves not all humans have good in them is the presence of terrorist organizations such as ISIS. The ISIS members behead people and kill people in painful and horrible ways. If these people had any slight good in them, these atrocities would not be happening. Â  

The Light Emitting Diodes Engineering Essay

The Light Emitting Diodes Engineering Essay History of lighting devices starts with low efficient incandescent lamps, then next came the CFL lamp. In the history of lighting devices, invention of LED was a turning point Light Emitting Diode or simply LED is an electronic device, which emits light when electricity passes through it. LED has a number of different uses in day to day life. Its uses varies from a simple power on indicator to indicator to traffic signals. LED uses about 10% of the energy traditional light bulb uses and they can last about thirty times longer.LED lights are highly efficient and cost effective. Nano technology has its own role to play in lighting devices history. Invention of quantum dots and ionic liquids changed the face of lighting industry. Quantum Dots LEDs were manufactured using quantum dots particles. QLEDs offer better luminescence than normal LED lights. Introduction of Ionic Liquids (IL) was another turning point. Still in the beginning stage, Ionic Liquids offer a better solution to the world of lighting devices. 2. Light Emitting Diodes (LED) A Light Emitting Diode or LED is a semi-conductor device which can be used as a light-source. Semiconductors are neither a good conductor nor an insulator. Semiconductors are made up of semiconducting materials like Silicon or Germanium. A diode (also called as a PN junction diode) has two terminals, anode(a) and cathode (k), anode is a positive terminal and cathode is negative terminal- which allows electric current to pass only in one direction. A semiconductor diode can be compared to a switch or a one-way valve. A Light Emitting Diode emits light when electric current passes through it. The colour emitted by an LED depends on the type of semiconductor material used for its construction. Common colours available for LEDs are green, red, orange, blue, yellow and white. Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInp) alloy is used for obtaining red, yellow and orange lights. Indium gallium nitride (IaGaN) is used for getting blue, green and white lights. White and Blue LEDs are more expensive than other colours. Apart from the above colours, Infra Red LEDS (also called IREDs-Infra Red Emitting Diodes) and Ultra Violet LEDs are also available. Staring into an Ultra Violet LEDS is harmful to the eyes. 3. Quantum dot LEDs (QLEDs) Quantum Dots are very small crystals, in nanotechnology terminology, they are nano particles of semiconductor materials, usually its diameter varies between 2 and 10 nano meters. Quantum dot particles were discovered in early 80s by Louis Brus at Bell Laboratories. A Quantum Dot can contain either a single electron or thousands of electrons. Generally quantum dots are made from the sulphides or selenides of semi conductor materials like Zinc or Cadmium. Quantum dots electronic and optical characters are related to the size and shape of each particles. When energy is applied (under excitation), electrons get energized and moved to higher bands, and when electrons get back to the stable state, the additional energy is emitted as light corresponding to a certain frequency. Its narrow emission spectrum is directly proportional to the size of the crystal. Smaller particles give a blue shifted emission and larger particles give a red shifted emission. Using a technique called size quantization effect, quantum dots can be tuned to produce any colour during manufacturing. Quantum dot LEDs (QLED or QD LED) are devices which use quantum dots as their light emitting material. These dots are excited when electricity is applied and emits light according to the size of the dots. Larger dots produce more energy levels and darker colours and smaller dots create smaller energy levels and emits lighter colour shades. Gold or silver nano particles are very versatile materials whose diameter varies from 1nm to 100nm. Gold nano particles are comparatively smaller that of Silicon Quantum Dots. And it s experimentally proven that, smaller particles generate better fluorescence than that of larger particles. So, Quantum Dot LEDs manufactured from gold or silver nano particles increases the luminescence. 4. Ionic liquids (IL) Ionic liquid is the salt form of any material in liquid state. Ionic liquids are liquid salts. Ionic liquids are made up of, ions (charged atoms) or ion pairs. These ions or ion pairs are poorly coordinated in the liquid. This poor coordination of ions results in the liquid from below 100 °C. Ionic liquids are also known as liquid electrolytes or ionic fluids. When a salt melts without decomposing, it results to an Ionic Liquid. Ionic bond is much more stronger than the bond between the normal Van der Waals forces in the molecules. Ionic liquid changes its form to ionic solid when it gets cooled. Ionic solids are seen in two forms, crystalline and glassy. At low temperature, ionic liquids acts like ionic solutions, which is a combination of both ions and neutral molecules. Ionic liquids are also called designer solvents, because they are manufacturing in the lab for specific purpose. Properties of ionic liquids are they dont evaporate, and it is a good conductor of electricity, and it dissolves almost everything. The reason for their non-evaporate property is their non-volatile nature. So, Ionic liquids can replace some acids and organic solvents. Ionic liquids are used for electro polishing, metal plating, extracting metals from rocks. Applications for Ionic liquids are storage for chemical cells, batteries, fuel cells and electro chronic devices for displays, cellulose processing, used as dispersants agents in paints, for gas handling and storage, for natural fuel processing, in food and bio-product industries, in recycling of plastic and synthetic wastes etc. 5. Turn-On Time Turn on time or rise time is the time required by a signal to change from low state to high state. The time it takes for the output of a system to change from a specified small percentage (usually 5 or 10) of its steady-state increment to a specified large percentage (usually 90 or 95).   (www.answers.com) An LEDs turn-on-time is the time needed by the device to turn from OFF state to ON state. Time needed to emit the light, after applying the electricity. LEDs are very fast devices and its turn-on time is 0.0001S or 0.1mS. Polymer light emitting diodes (PLED) uses an electro luminescent conductive polymer that emits light when connected to a power supply. PLEDs need very small amount of electricity to emit light and therefore they are considered to be very efficient. A polymer light emitting diode use ionic liquids as one its active material. Usually polymer light emitting diode has fast turn on time. 6. Improved Efficiencies in LED LED efficiency can be improved by paying attention on packaging, chip structure and positive voltage applying. White LEDs are usually considered to be more efficient that the other Red, Green, Blue colour LEDs. White light in LED can be produced in two ways. One method is, using three individual LEDs which producing the primary colours and then mixing them to produce the white light. Another method is, using the principle which is using in fluorescent lights, a phosphor material is used to convert light from UV or blue LED to white light. The luminous efficiency of blue/UV chip and the conversion efficiency of phosphorous determine the efficiency of white LED. Luminous efficiency is highly influenced by temperature and current. Efficiency of LEDs fall with the increasing current. This effect is called droop. When operating temperature increases from 327K to 380K, the luminous efficiency dropped by 20%. When the temperature is rising, the radiation at the potential decreases which eventually cause a decrease in luminous efficiency. When operating current rises from 0mA to 350mA, the luminous efficiency of LED tend to be decreased by 35%. When current increases, more and more non-stable electrons diffuse out of potential well, thus decreasing the luminous efficiency. We can improve the luminous efficiency of a LED by improving the heat dissipation efficiency and increasing the width of potential well. Working condition of a LED should be under limited temperature and moderate current. The heat generated in the LED, reduces the efficiency of lighting performance. A good packing technology is the way to solve the heat dissipation problem. But developing a heat dissipation technology for reducing the LEDs working temperature is a real challenge. The efficiency and reliability of an LED depends on the thermal dissipation of an LED, because the heat generated in the junction affect the performance and effective operation of LED. LED efficiency can be improved by LED packaging. But, we need to over come the challenges facing in packaging stage to reach the desired efficiency. The challenges facing in packaging are colour consistency of light emitting, multi-chip packaging etc. Packaging technology used for high power LED are more complex and costly. In addition to packaging, chip structure and positive voltage also play a role in LED efficiency. Efficiency can be achieved if positive voltage can be controlled in a very small range. 7.Studies of radiation damage in solar cells and LEDs Solar cells Solar cells or photovoltaic (PV) cells are devices which converts solar light to electricity. Working principle of a solar cell is just opposite to that of LED. A solar cell converts light to electricity while a LED converts electricity to light. In a solar cells, photovoltaic effect generates electricity. Solar cells are made up of semiconductor materials like silicon. When light hits on a solar cell, some portion of a light is absorbed by silicon material. That means, the energy in the light is shifted to the semi conductor material. This energy excites the electrons and make them to break the covalent bond, Breaking of covalent bonds in an atom results in free electrons. This free electrons start flowing and the flow of free electrons cause a current flow in the solar cell. A group of solar cells are electrically connected to form a frame called solar panels. A solar panels are grouped to form large solar arrays. When sunlight hits the semiconductor, the electrons from P-type semiconductor springs up and is attracted towards the N-type semiconductor. This make negative charges in the N-type semiconductor and more positive charges in P-type semiconductor. Thus electricity is generated due to the flow of electrons. This is called photovoltaic effect. Radiation damage Radiation damage is the physical damage occurs to devices (solar cell or LED) in a radiation environment. Visible light, also known as electromagnetic radiation, does not damage soalr cells or LED normally. But exposing to ultra violet (UV) light , which has more energy, can damage the cells overtime. Output parameters of the devices are affected by radiation damage. Radiation damage in solar cells and LEDs occur when highly massive particles like electrons, protons, or ions come in contact with semi conductor materials. The source of the highly massive particles may be nuclear reactions, gamma rays, space radiation etc. The particles having mass and energy can interact with materials in different ways, such as inelastic collision with electrons in a material, inelastic collisions with nucleus and elastic collisions with nucleus. Ionisation and atomic displacement are the two categories of radiation damage that occur to solar cells and LEDs. Ionisation : Ionisation is the process when an atom becomes an ion. It happens, when electrons lose from an outer orbit or extra electrons are added to atom structure. High energy radiation cause ionisation in materials. The use of silicon is solar cells and LEDs cause a range of ionisation related radiation effects such as increased leakage current, decreased gain etc. Atomic displacement : When a fast particles collide with a crystal, silicon atoms may get displaced from their lattice structure. And this displacement may damage the silicon solar cells. Silicon Solar cell damage There are different method to measure silicon solar cell damage. One method is by measuring the irradiation changes occurring in a solar cell and can be explained using basic solar cell equation. This method require data such as series resistance, shunt resistance, current generated by light and diode parameters such as saturation current and quality factor of diode. Solar cell damage can also be measured by observing the change in minority carrier diffusion length. And this method is widely used because diffusion length is measurable. But there are many disadvantage to this method. One serious disadvantage is damage caused due to low energy protons. Low energy protons do a significant damage to the PN junction of a solar cell. This irregular damage increases the saturation and quality factor of the diode. This damage can cause a significant decrease in voltage. The output parameters of a solar cell can be described using the formula Isc  =  Isc0  Ã‚  C  log (1 +  Phi  /  Phix)  , where Isc is the cell short circuit current Phix is the radiation fluence at which Isc starts to change C is the Constant indicates the decrease in Isc per decade The relation between solar cell short circuit current and diffusion length can be represented as Isc  =  A  lnL  +  B. Solar cells are more prone to radiation damage in space. The degradation of cover glass material of solar cell in space is more. Ionisation cause more damage to covering material than atom displacement. Ionisation in material are directly depend on the radiation absorbed. Solar cells are usually made up of Si and GaAs which are more prone to radiation. Replacing these semiconductor material with InP during manufacturing is the best way to reduce damage due to radiation. InP is more resistant to radiation that Si or GaAs. InP substrate constructed with high carrier concentration has superior radiation resistance. LEDs are also prone to displacement damage. Shorter wave length AlGaAs and GaAs LEDs emitting light in the region 800-900nm are more prone to radiation damage. Manufacturing LEDs with higher wavelength is the answer to this radiation problem. 8. CONCLUSION LED lights are widely using these days commercially. The main advantage of LED is its reduced power consumption. They are highly efficient, cost effective, durable and long lasting. Inventions like quantum dot and Ionic Liquids in Nano Technology field, bring significant changes in Lighting. Quantum Dot LEDS are more efficient than normal LEDs, QLEDs use nano crystals as their lighting materials. Use of gold or silver nano particles increases the luminescence emitted from the QLEDs. Introduction of Ionic Liquids, changed the appearance of LED lights. Ordinary LED lights produces a harsh white lights. Implementing a layer of ionic liquids to the LED light, produces a warm light. Researches were made to find the ways of improving the efficiencies of LED. When expose to space radiation solar cells and LEDs are more prone to damages. And it reduces the life span of these devices. Researches are still continuing in the field of nano technology, searching for finding new methods to improve the efficiency of lighting devices.